By Mike Markowitz for CoinWeek …..
For a while he governed in an uneven fashion: that is to say, his vices were at first balanced by his virtues. Later he transformed his virtues into vices too – for I am inclined to believe that he was not evil-minded to begin with: it was lack of funds that made him greedy, and fear of assassination that made him cruel.
— Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, xii:3
TITUS FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS–better known as Domitian–has gotten a raw deal from historians, thanks largely to Rome’s ace gossip columnist, Suetonius[1] (lived c. 69-122). Born on October 24, 51 CE at Rome, Domitian was the younger son of Vespasian, who ruled as Emperor from 69 to 79. For much of his life he was overshadowed by his brother, the popular Emperor Titus, who was 10 years Domitian’s senior (17 centuries later, Mozart wrote an opera celebrating the “clemency of Titus”[2]; poor, nasty Domitian hasn’t gotten any operas). Following the premature death of his brother at the age of 41 (September 13, 81), Domitian was proclaimed Emperor by the Praetorian Guard. He would rule for 15 years until he was assassinated in a palace coup. The abundant collectible coins of Domitian in all metals illustrate a critical period in Roman imperial history.
Domitian and Titus as Caesars
Vespasian was victorious in the chaotic civil war that followed the death of Nero (the “Year of Four Emperors”). He awarded his sons the title of Caesar, which in this era meant something like “junior co-emperor” and “designated successor”. A gold aureus of Vespasian datable to 71 CE[3] shows his two sons on horseback, with the inscription “Titus and Domitian, Caesars and Princes of the Youth”. Princeps juventutis (“Prince of the Youth”) was an honorary title dating back to the Roman Republic that was awarded to young men who performed an ancient equestrian ritual.
Temple of Vesta
During the reign of his father, coins were struck in the name of Domitian as Caesar. A notable example has a reverse depicting the Temple of Vesta[4] in Rome, which still partially stands. This circular structure housed the sacred flame tended by the Vestal Virgins. This coin, which may come from the famous Boscoreale Hoard of 1895[5], has a pedigree dating back to the 1909 sale of the collection of British archaeologist Sir John Evans.[6] In a 2024 U.S. auction, it realized $20,000 against an estimate of $15,000.[7]
Minerva Aureus
Domitian had a special devotion to the cult of the goddess Minerva. After he became emperor, she appeared on a high percentage of his coins. A gold aureus datable to 82 CE bears the head of Minerva on the reverse, wearing an elaborate crested helmet and body armor, emphasizing her role as a war goddess. She is surrounded by an inscription listing some of Domitian’s titles, carried over from the obverse.[8]
Minerva Denarius
Under the reign of Nero, the silver denarius fell in weight from 3.9 grams (84 to the Roman pound) to about 3.4 grams (96 to the pound). The alloy had also suffered serious debasement, falling as low as 85% silver. Domitian attempted to restore the quality of the denarius, with mixed success:
In 82-85, Domitian improved the silver standard, and older coins averaging 88 to 92 percent silver were reminted into purer denarii (98 percent fine). These purer coins had scarcely entered the marketplace when Domitian, in mid-85, pressed for money to pay off war bills, again changed the standard, reducing it to 93 percent fine… so the majority of the fine denarii of 82-85 ended up in the melting pot rather than in hoards (Harl, 14).
A denarius dated to early 88 CE and graded extremely fine bears a standing figure of Minerva brandishing a spear.[9]
Dolphin and Anchor
The reverse of an unusual denarius[10] dated to late 81 CE (very early in Domitian’s reign) bears the symbol of a dolphin entwined around an anchor, illustrating the proverb “Make Haste Slowly” (Festina Lente in Latin[11]), a favorite saying of the emperor Augustus.
Jupiter the Victor
Weighing about 26 grams, the large bronze sestertius was valued at one-quarter of a denarius. A superb example dated to c. 92-94 CE bears a reverse image of Jupiter enthroned, extending his arm holding a small figure of Victory. This representation of the god is derived from the colossal gold and ivory statue of Zeus at Olympia[12], Greece – one of the “Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.” Described by the cataloguer as a “bold portrait struck in high relief on a very large flan and a magnificent enamel-like dark green patina,” this coin brought over $14,000 in a recent auction.[13]
Colosseum
The most famous building in Rome, the Colosseum is extraordinarily rare on Roman coins, with examples bringing very high prices. One of the finest was a sestertius issued during Domitian’s reign (c. 81-82) honoring his deceased and deified brother, Titus. The aerial view of the great stadium is richly detailed, with little statues in the arched niches of the exterior and the spectators depicted as tiny dots. Only eleven examples are known; this one brought over $464,000 in a 2020 Swiss auction.[14]
Rider Sestertius
Even the most timid Roman emperors, who rarely left the safety of the palace, liked to depict themselves adorned with the trappings of military glory. Domitian had commanded armies on campaign, and proudly added Germanicus (“Conqueror of the Germans”, abbreviated as GERM) to his titles. On the reverse of a handsome sestertius, we see Domitian on horseback, spearing a fallen enemy.[15]
Dupondius
During this period, the dupondius, valued at one-half sestertius, was struck in brass (orichalcum[16] in Latin), an alloy of copper and zinc. The distinctive mark of the denomination was the spiky “radiate” crown worn by the emperor. A superb dupondius of Domitian, dated to 85, bears a reverse image of the war god Mars.[17]
As
The copper as, worth one-quarter of a sestertius, weighed about 13 grams. Struck in large quantities, one as could purchase a loaf of bread. The as circulated vigorously in the urban economy and is rarely found in high grades. An extraordinary example, dated to 85 CE, described as “a lovely portrait of fine style struck in high relief on a very large flan… good extremely fine,” brought over $12,000 in a recent auction.[18]
Semis
Under Domitian, the semis, valued at one-half as and weighing about four grams, was also struck in brass. An example dated to c. 81-82 shows an obverse portrait of the emperor with his name, and the reverse bears a cornucopia (“horn of plenty”) a symbol of prosperity, with the letters S C abbreviating Senatus Consultu (“By Decree of the Senate”), which was a standard inscription on Roman copper alloy coins.[19]
Quadrans
The humble copper quadrans was the smallest regular denomination of Roman coinage. For the working-class users of small change, nothing was more important than Rome’s grain supply, which determined the availability of daily bread. A quadrans in the name of Domitian issued c. 84-85 bears the image of Ceres, goddess of grain. On the reverse, we see a basket filled with ears of wheat.[20] These little coins are rarely found in high grade; this example, graded “about extremely fine”, is exceptional.
Domitia
Domitia Longina was born sometime between the years 50 and 55 CE–the specific date is unknown. Her father, Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo[21], was a successful and popular general ordered to commit suicide by Nero. Her mother, Cassia Longina, was a descendant of the emperor Augustus. Domitian fell in love with her and ordered her first husband to divorce her in 71. She was given the title of Augusta (“Empress”) when Domitian became Emperor, and coins bearing her portrait were struck. She bore a son who died in infancy (c.82-83). The reverse of a rare gold aureus in the name of Domitia shows the deified baby sitting on a globe surrounded by stars.[22] Domitia survived the palace coup in which her husband was killed, dying around 130 CE.
Julia Titi
Under Roman law, sexual relations between an uncle and a niece were not prohibited as incest.[23] Julia Flavia (nicknamed “Julia Titi”), daughter of Emperor Titus, was born about the year 63. Titus offered her in marriage to Domitian, who initially refused. In 83, Domitian exiled his wife Domitia Longina (supposedly for having an affair with a famous actor) and began a long relationship with Julia Titi. Rare gold aurei were struck with her portrait, and a peacock on the reverse, surrounded by the inscription “Daughter of the Divine Titus”.[24] She reportedly died in 91 at the age of about 27 due to a failed abortion. Modern historians doubt this story, considering it gossip promoted by Domitian’s enemies after his assassination. In any case, Domitian had Julia deified after her death.
Collecting the Coins of Domitian
As the last of the “Twelve Caesars”, Domitian has always been popular with collectors of Roman coins. Major auctions generally offer a selection of Domitian’s coins in all metals and grades. The standard reference in English, usually cited as RIC–Volume 2 of The Roman Imperial Coinage (Mattingly, 1926)–is somewhat outdated. Suarez (2014) is an up-to-date and accessible guide to this extensive series.
OCRE (Online Coins of the Roman Empire), maintained by the American Numismatic Society (ANS), is also a useful resource.
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Notes
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suetonius
[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_clemenza_di_Tito
[3] Roma Numismatics E-sale 103, November 24, 2022, Lot 967. Realized £3,800 (about $4,614 USD; estimate £2,500).
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boscoreale_Treasure
[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Evans_(archaeologist)
[7] CNG Triton XXVII, January 9, 2024, Lot 735. Realized $20,000 USD (estimate $15,000).
[8] CNG Auction 126, May 28, 2024, Lot 743. Realized $8,000 USD (estimate $7,500).
[9] CNG Auction 126, May 28, 2024, Lot 745. Realized $1,250 USD (estimate $500).
[10] CNG E-auction 538, May 10, 2023, Lot 523. Realized $325 USD (estimate $200).
[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festina_lente
[12] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia
[13] NAC Auction 144, May 8, 2024, Lot 1053. Realized CHF 13,000 (about $14,369 USD; estimate CHF 10,000).
[14] NAC Auction 120, October 6, 2020, Lot 735. Realized CHF 425,000 (about $464,430 USD; estimate CHF 200,000).
[15] NAC Auction 114, May 6, 2019, Lot 1497. Realized CHF 750 (about $737 USD; estimate CHF 300).
[16] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orichalcum
[17] Leu Web Auction 29, February 24, 2024, Lot 1941. Realized CHF 1,300 (about $1,476 USD; estimate CHF 250).
[18] NAC Auction 144, May 8 2024, Lot 1051. Realized CHF 11,000 (about $12,159 USD; estimate CHF 6,000).
[19] Leu Web Auction 24, December 3, 2022, Lot 2733. Realized CHF 300 (about $319 USD; estimate CHF 50).
[20] Bertolami Auction 279, March 12, 2024, Lot 132. Realized €180 (about $197 USD; estimate €50).
[21] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus_Domitius_Corbulo
[22] NAC Auction 138, May 18, 2023, Lot 675. Realized CHF 22,000 (about $24,301 USD; estimate CHF 15,000).
[23] https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Incestum.html#
[24] NAC Auction 146, May 8, 2024, Lot 2325. Realized CHF 12,000 (about $13,214 USD; estimate CHF 8,000).
References for Coins of Domitian
Foss, Clive. Roman Historical Coins. London (1990)
Griffin, Miriam. “The Flavians”, in Bowman, Alan K. et. al. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XI: The High Empire, A.D. 70 – 192. Cambridge (2000)
Harl, Kenneth. Coinage in the Roman Economy. Baltimore (1996)
Jones, Brian W. The Emperor Domitian. London (1993)
Kraay, Colin M. “Two New Sestertii of Domitian”, ANS Museum Notes IX (1960)
Mattingly, Harold and Edward Sydenham. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Volume 2: Vespasian – Hadrian (69-138). London (1926)
Sear, David. Roman Coins and Their Values: Volume 1, The Republic and the Twelve Caesars. London (2000)
Suarez, Rasiel. The Complete Coinage of Domitian. Tumwater, WA. (e-Book, 2014)
Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars (Robert Graves, translator). New York (1957)
Vagi, David. Coinage and History of the Roman Empire (2 volumes). Sidney, OH (1999)
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